Religious conversion

The Conversion of Saint Paul, a 1600 painting by Italian artist Caravaggio (1571–1610).

Religious conversion is the adoption of new religious beliefs that differ from the convert's previous beliefs. It involves a new religious identity, or a change from one religious identity to another. Conversion requires internalization of the new belief system. It implies a new reference point for one's self identity and is a matter of belief and social structure—of both faith and affiliation.^[1] This typically entails the sincere avowal of a new belief system, but may also present itself in other ways, such as adoption into an identity group or spiritual lineage. Conversion refers to changes from one religion to another, not to be confused with religious reaffiliation which refers to changes from one denomination to another within the same faith.^[2] Examples of religious reaffiliation include switching from being Southern Baptist to Methodist (within Christianity) or from Sunni to Shiite (within Islam).

There are different types of religion conversion which include, active conversion which is the free agency, volitional choice to acquire new beliefs and religious identity,^[3] marital conversion, Secondary conversion, Deathbed conversion, and Forced conversion.

Proselytism is the act of attempting to convert another individual from a specific religion or belief system. (See proselyte).

Apostate (n.) is a term with pejorative connotations used by members of one church or religion to refer to someone who has left that church or religion.

Abrahamic Religions

Judaism

Procedure

Jewish law guidelines for accepting new converts to Judaism are called "giyur." Potential converts should desire conversion to Judaism for its own sake, and for no other motives. A male convert needs to undergo a ritual circumcision conducted according to Jewish law (if already circumcised, a needle is used to draw a symbolic drop of blood while the appropriate blessings are said), and there has to be a commitment to observe the 613 mitzvot and Jewish law. A convert must join the Jewish community, and reject the previous theology he or she had prior to the conversion. Ritual immersion in a small pool of water known as a mikvah is required.

History

In Hellenistic and Roman times, some Pharisees were eager proselytizers, and had at least some success throughout the empire.

Some Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism outside the Mediterranean world. It is known that some Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians, as well as many Arabs, particularly in Yemen before, converted to Judaism in the past; today people all over the world convert to Judaism. In fact, there is a greater tradition of conversion to Judaism than many people realize. The word "proselyte" originally meant a Greek who had converted to Judaism. As late as the 6th century the Eastern Roman empire (i.e., the Byzantine empire) was issuing decrees against conversion to Judaism, implying that conversion to Judaism was still occurring.

In recent times, members of the Reform Judaism movement began a program to convert to Judaism the non-Jewish spouses of its intermarried members and non-Jews who have an interest in Judaism. Their rationale is that so many Jews were lost during the Holocaust that newcomers must be sought out and welcomed. This approach has been repudiated by Orthodox and Conservative Jews as unrealistic and posing a danger. They say that these efforts make Judaism seem an easy religion to join and observe when in reality being Jewish entails many difficulties and sacrifices.

Christianity

Conversion to Christianity is the religious conversion of a previously non-Christian person to some form of Christianity. The exact understanding of what it means to attain salvation varies somewhat among churches and denominations. It primarily involves confession and repentance of sin and a decision to live a life that is holy and acceptable to God through faith in Jesus Christ. Converts are almost always expected to be baptized.

Baptism

Catholics, Orthodox and many Protestant denominations encourage infant baptism, welcoming children into the Christian faith before they are aware of their status. In Roman Catholicism and certain high church forms of Protestantism, baptized children are expected to participate in confirmation classes as pre-teens and affirm their faith by personal choice. In Eastern Orthodoxy, the equivalent of confirmation, chrismation, is administered to all converts, adult and infant alike, immediately after baptism.

The method of baptism varies among immersion, sprinkling (aspersion) and pouring (affusion).^[4] Baptism received by adults or younger people who have reached the age of accountability where they can make a personal religious decision is referred to as believer's baptism among conservative or evangelical Protestant groups. It is intended as a public confession of one's prior decision to become a believer in and follower of Jesus Christ.^[5] Some Christian groups such as Catholics, Churches of Christ, and Christadelphians believe baptism is essential to salvation.

Accepting Christ and renouncing sin

The Augsburg Confession divides repentance into two parts: "One is contrition, that is, terrors smiting the conscience through the knowledge of sin; the other is faith, which is born of the Gospel, or of absolution, and believes that for Christ's sake, sins are forgiven, comforts the conscience, and delivers it from terrors."^[6]

Conversion involves more than a simple change in religious identity. It is a change in nature (regeneration), evidenced by a change in values. In fact, the Latin word conversio, translating the Greek metanoia, literally means "going the other way" or "changing one's mind". A convert, therefore, is one who renounces sin as worthless and treasures instead the supreme worth of Jesus Christ. The convert sees the worth of Christ in Jesus' sacrificial death and resurrection and believes that sin is utterly unsatisfying and that Christ is everything he or she needs.^[7]

The Christian convert believes that his separation from God cannot be overcome by good deeds done out of a desire to achieve individual moral self-satisfaction; rather, he seeks the forgiveness of his sins in the blood of Christ and wishes to be clothed in the righteousness of Christ. Because conversion is a change in values that embraces God and rejects sin, it includes a personal commitment to a life of holiness as described by Paul of Tarsus and exemplified by Jesus. In some Protestant traditions, this is called "accepting Christ as one's Savior and following him as Lord."^[8] In another variation, the 1910 Catholic Dictionary defines "conversion" as "One who turns or changes from a state of sin to repentance, from a lax to a more earnest and serious way of life, from unbelief to faith, from heresy to the true faith."^[9] The Eastern Orthodox understanding of conversion is illustrated in the rite of baptism, in which the convert faces west while publicly renouncing and symbolically spitting upon Satan, and then turns to the east to worship Christ "as king and God".^[10]

Responsibilities

Most Christians believe that sharing the Gospel, in word or in deed, of Jesus Christ is a responsibility of all followers of Jesus. According to the New Testament, Jesus commanded his disciples to "go and make disciples of all nations," ^{[Matthew 28:19]} generally known as the Great Commission. Evangelism, or "spreading the good news," has been a central part of the life of Christians since that time. Some Evangelical Protestants insist that, in order to fulfill the Great Commission, every Christian must be prepared to verbally present the Gospel message to nearly everyone they encounter. More traditional forms of Christianity, such as Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, question whether the Gospel can accurately and faithfully be explained in a few short words and hence place greater emphasis on evangelism by example.

Transfers

Transferring from one Christian denomination to another may consist of a relatively simple transfer of membership, especially if moving from one Trinitarian denomination to another, and if the person has received water baptism in the name of the Trinity. If not, then the person may need to be baptized or rebaptized to become incorporated into the new church. Some denominations, such as those in the Anabaptist tradition, require previously baptized Christians to be re-baptized before being accepted into their respective religious community. The Eastern Orthodox Church treats a transfer from another denomination of Christianity to Orthodoxy (conceived of as the one true Church) as a category of conversion and repentance, though re-baptism is not always required.

The process of conversion to Christianity varies somewhat among Christian denominations. Most Protestants believe in conversion by faith to attain salvation. According to this understanding, the person professes faith in Jesus Christ as Savior. While an individual may make such a decision privately, usually it entails being baptized and becoming a member of a denomination or church. In these traditions, one is considered to become a Christian by publicly acknowledging the reality of the death, burial and resurrection Jesus for the remission of sins, and thereby receiving Jesus as their personal Savior. It is unclear in this context how the severely mentally disabled, for example, can be saved, if at all.

Comparison among Protestants

This table summarizes the classical views of three different Protestant beliefs.^[11]

Islam

A newly converted Muslim is called a Muallaf. There are five pillars, or foundations, of Islam but the primary, and most important is by believing that there is only one God and creator, referred to as Allah (the word for the name of God in Arabic) and that the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, is his messenger. A person is considered to have converted to Islam from the moment he or she sincerely makes this declaration of faith, called the shahadah.^[12][13]

It is common belief among Muslims that everyone is Muslim at birth^[14][15] [derived from a single source and brought into being by the single entity] but sometimes chooses to take steps to revert back to their origins. While conversion to Islam is among its most supported tenets, conversion from Islam to another religion, apostasy, is considered to be a sin, and carries with it the penalty of death.^[16]

In Islam, circumcision is a Sunnah custom not mentioned in the Qur'an. The primary opinion is that it is not obligatory and is not a condition for entering into Islam. The Shafi`i and Hanbali schools regard it as wajib or fard, while the Maliki and Hanafi schools regard it as only recommended. However, it is not a precondition for the acceptance of one's Islamic practices nor does one sin if choosing to forego circumcision. It is neither one of the Five Pillars of Islam nor the Six Fundamentals of Belief.^[17][18][19]

Bahá'í Faith

Though it actively seeks converts, the Bahá'í Faith prohibits proselytism and does not pursue "missionary" work. In sharing their faith with others, Bahá'ís are cautioned to "obtain a hearing" – meaning to make sure the person they're proposing to teach is open to hearing what they have to say. "Bahá'í pioneers", rather than attempting to supplant the cultural underpinnings of the people in their adopted communities, are encouraged to integrate into the society and apply Bahá'í principles in living and working with their neighbors.

Bahá'ís recognize the divine origins of all revealed religion, and believe that these religions occurred sequentially as part of a Divine plan (see Progressive revelation), with each new revelation superseding and fulfilling that of its predecessors. Bahá'ís regard their own faith as the most recent (but not the last), and believe its teachings – which are centered around the principle of the oneness of humanity – are most suited to meeting the needs of a global community.

In most countries conversion is a simple matter of filling out a card stating a declaration of belief. This includes acknowledgement of Bahá'u'llah – the Founder of the Faith – as the Messenger of God for this age, awareness and acceptance of His teachings, and intention to be obedient to the institutions and laws He established.

Conversion to the Bahá'í Faith carries with it an explicit belief in the common foundation of all revealed religion, a commitment to the unity of mankind, and active service to the community at large, especially in areas that will foster unity and concord. Since the Bahá'í Faith has no clergy, converts to this Faith are encouraged to be active in all aspects of community life. Indeed, even a recent convert may be elected to serve on a Local Spiritual Assembly – the guiding Bahá'í institution at the community level.^[20][21]

Indian Religions

Hinduism

Hinduism does not advocate, nor has any ritual of conversion. When a person becomes Hindu is ill defined as Hinduism never saw other faiths as rivals. According to Hinduism, there is one universal truth (ignorance of this truth or Brahman is the cause of grief and souls are caught in the eternal cycle of rebirth until realization), and there are multiple paths—including as followed by other religions—to "reach" the truth. The Sanskrit word for religion "Marga" literally means path. The mere notion of conversion is an oxymoron because the Hindu texts Vedas and Upanishads conceive whole world as a single family that deifies the one truth.^[22][23]

Earliest account of revival of faith in Hinduism is from the 8th century in the times of Shankaracharya when Jainism and Budhism became fashionable: the Hindu way of "conversion" is to win a person over argument and establish that tenets of Hinduism are more "logically consistent" than the rivals religions. There is no evidence of invasion and mass conversion in Hiduism. Many foreign groups including Gujjars, Ahoms, and Hunas converted to Hinduism after generations of Sanskritization.^[24] In the 18th century, Manipur was evangelized by Hindu priests.

There is also a recent notion of re-converting earlier converted Hindus. This re-conversion has always been as a reaction to the threat of evangelization, proselytism, and conversion activities of other major religions many modern Hindus are opposed to the idea of conversion from their religion to (any) other.^[25]. Reconversion among people who were formerly Hindus or whose ancestors were formerly Hindus has picked up pace with the growth of Hindu revivalist movements.^[26] National organizations such as Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (India) and Parisada Hindu Dharma (Indonesia) actively facilitate such reconversions.

American-born Hindu guru, Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami wrote a book entitled How to Become a Hindu - A Guide for Seekers and Born Hindus. In it, Subramuniyaswami offers a systematical approach to, what he calls, "ethical conversion to Hinduism," testimonials of converts to Hinduism, ques and clues of Hinduism, definitions of Hindu authorities on what a Hindu truly is, etc.

Sikhism

Sikhism is not known to openly proselytize, but accepts converts.

Jainism

Jainism accepts anyone who wants to embrace the religion. Any person who wants to convert to Jainism must be a strict vegetarian and accept Arhats and Siddhas as their deities. According to Indian law one has the right to become a follower of Jainism.

Buddhism

Buddhism rarely engages in proselytism. In Tibetan Buddhism, The current Dalai Lama discourages conversion without ruling it out altogether.^[27] New Buddhists traditionally "take Refuge" (express faith in the Three Jewels — Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) before a monk, nun, or similar representative. Buddhists often hold multiple religious identities, combining the religion with Shinto (in Japan) or Taoism and Confucianism (in China; cf. Chinese traditional religion).

Other religions and sects

Conversion to new religious movements (NRMs) is riddled with controversies. The anti-cult movement sometimes uses the term thought reform or even brainwashing. Often they will call certain NRMs cults. There are many different definitions for the word cult. NRMs are very diverse and it is not clear whether conversion to NRMs differs from conversion to mainstream religions. See also Brainwashing controversy in new religious movements

Research both in the USA and the Netherlands has shown there is a positive correlation between lack of involvement in mainstream churches in certain areas and provinces and the percentage of people who are a member of a new religious movement. This applies also for the presence of New Age centres.^[28][29] The Dutch research included Jehovah's Witnesses(Though most JW's were previously Religious including a number of former Ministers,Deacons,Priests and Nuns) and the Latter Day Saint movement/Mormonism to the NRMs ( Which was more indicative of the research).

The Church of Scientology attempts to gain converts by offering "free stress tests" (see picture at auditing). In contrast to other religions, which ask everyone to sign a card or membership book (e.g. Unitarian Universalism) or be baptised (e.g. Roman Catholic Church), Scientology requires converts to sign contracts before attending church.

On the other end of the scale are religions that do not accept any converts, or do so only very rarely. Often these are relatively small, close-knit minority religions, like the Yazidis, Druze, and Mandaeans.

Chinese traditional religion lacks clear criteria for membership, and hence for conversion. Several ethnic religions — including the Yazidis, Druze, and Mandaeans — appear to refuse all applicants for conversion. The Shakers and some Indian eunuch brotherhoods do not allow procreation, so that every member is a convert.

International law

The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights defines religious conversion as a human right: "Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief...." (Article 18). Though this is controversial because some groups either forbid or restrict religious conversion (see below).

Based on the declaration the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) drafted the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, a legally binding treaty. It states that "Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice..." (Article 18.1). "No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice" (Article 18.2).

The UNCHR issued a General Comment on this Article in 1993: "The Committee observes that the freedom to 'have or to adopt' a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the right to replace one's current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views [...] Article 18.2 bars coercion that would impair the right to have or adopt a religion or belief, including the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and congregations, to recant their religion or belief or to convert." (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, General Comment No. 22.; emphasis added)

Some countries distinguish voluntary, motivated conversion from organized proselytism, attempting to restrict the latter. The boundary between them is not easily defined. What one person considers legitimate evangelizing, or witness bearing, another may consider intrusive and improper. Illustrating the problems that can arise from such subjective viewpoints is this extract from an article by Dr. C. Davis, published in Cleveland State University's 'Journal of Law and Health': "According to the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, Jews for Jesus and Hebrew Christians constitute two of the most dangerous cults, and its members are appropriate candidates for deprogramming. Anti-cult evangelicals ... protest that 'aggressiveness and proselytizing ... are basic to authentic Christianity,' and that Jews for Jesus and Campus Crusade for Christ are not to be labeled as cults. Furthermore, certain Hassidic groups who physically attacked a meeting of the Hebrew Christian 'cult' have themselves been labeled a 'cult' and equated with the followers of Reverend Moon, by none other than the President of the Central Conference of American Rabbis."^[30]

Views on the propriety of proselytism, or even evangelism, differ radically. Some feel that freedom of speech should have no limits and that virtually anyone, anywhere should have the right to talk about anything they see fit. Others see all sorts of evangelism as a nuisance and an intrusion and would like to see them proscribed. Thus, Natan Lerner observes that the issue is one of a clash of rights — the right of a person to express his views versus the right of a person not to be exposed to views that he does not wish to hear.

From a legal standpoint, certain criteria are often mentioned in distinguishing legitimate evangelization from illicit proselytism:

• All humans have the right to have religious beliefs, and to change these beliefs, even repeatedly, if that is their desire. (Freedom of Religion)
• They have the right to form religious organizations for the purpose of worship, as well as for promoting their cause. (Freedom of Association)
• They have the right to speak to others about their convictions, with the purpose of influencing the others. (Freedom of Speech).

By the same token, these very rights exercise a limiting influence on the freedoms of others. For instance, the right to have one's religious beliefs presumably includes the right not to be coerced into changing these beliefs by threats, discrimination, or similar inducements.

Hence a category of improper proselytizing can be discerned:

• It would not be proper to use coercion, threats, the weight of authority of the educational system, access to health care or similar facilities in order to induce people to change their religion.
• It would be improper to try to impose one's beliefs on a 'captive audience', where the listeners have no choice but to be present. This would presumably require restraint in the exercise of their right to free speech, by teachers in the classroom, army officers to their inferiors, prison officers in prison, medical staff in hospitals, so as to avoid impinging on the rights of others.
• It would not be proper to offer money, work, housing or other material inducements as a means of persuading people to adopt another religion.

Since the collapse of the former Soviet Union the Russian Orthodox Church has enjoyed a revival. However, it takes exception to what it considers illegitimate proselytizing by the Roman Catholic Church, the Salvation Army, Jehovah's Witnesses and other religious movements^[31] in what it refers to as its canonical territory.

Greece has a long history of conflict, mostly with Jehovah's Witnesses but also with some Pentecostals over its laws on proselytism. This situation stems from a law passed in the 1930s by the dictator Ioannis Metaxas. A Jehovah's Witness, Minos Kokkinakis, won the equivalent of US $14,400 in damages from the Greek state after being arrested for trying to preach his faith from door to door. In another case, Larissis vs. Greece, a member of the Pentecostal church also won a case in the European Court of Human Rights.

Some Islamic countries with Islamic law outlaw and carry strict sentences for proselytizing. Several Islamic countries under Islamic law, Saudi Arabia,^[32][33] Yemen,^[34] Afghanistan and Pakistan,^[35] Egypt,^[36] Iran,^[37][38] and Maldives^[39] outlaw apostasy and carry imprisonment or the death penalty for those leaving Islam and those enticing Muslims to leave Islam. Also, induced religious conversions in Indian States of Orissa has resulted in communal-riots.

See also

References

Further reading

• Barker, Eileen The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing? (1984)
• Barrett, D. V. The New Believers — A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions (2001) UK, Cassell & Co ISBN 0-304-35592-5
• Cooper, Richard S. "The Assessment and Collection of Kharaj Tax in Medieval Egypt" (Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 96, No. 3. (Jul – Sep., 1976), pp. 365–382.
• Curtin, Phillip D. Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge University Press, 1984.
• Hoiberg, Dale, and Indu Ramachandran. Students' Britannica India. Popular Prakashan, 2000.
• Rambo, Lewis R. Understanding Religious Conversion. Yale University Press, 1993.
• Ramstedt, Martin. Hinduism in Modern Indonesia: A Minority Religion Between Local, National, and Global Interests. Routledge, 2004.
• Rawat, Ajay S. StudentMan and Forests: The Khatta and Gujjar Settlements of Sub-Himalayan Tarai. Indus Publishing, 1993.

External links

• Testimony of a Hindu Convert to Christianity - Br. Ram Babu
• Religious Conversions in India – Right or Wrong
• Online Book on conversion to Hinduism